A History of Ancient Egypt

The earliest Egyptians first settled along the Nile River in approximately 5000 BC. Aside from being the only major source of freshwater in the area, the Nile was also advantageous in that it flooded and receded on a predictable yearly schedule. After the floods, fresh fertile soil was deposited along the riverbanks, and early Egyptians planted their wheat and barley here. Evidence suggests that they did not develop agriculture on their own, but learned it from the Mesopotamians.


Although they supplemented their diets with pigs and sheep, the land was still too dry to produce much food until they employed irrigation. The population steadily increased from about 4000 BC, with the people living in small villages, or nomes, that had their own kings. There is evidence of pottery-and boat-making, as well as intensified agriculture For a group of people to have a "civilization," they must have these five elements:

1) Urbanization - the potential to have a city, not just an agricultural settlement.
2) Economic specialization - people begin to specialize in particular professions (potter, smith, etc.).
3) Social specialization - a social hierarchy forms (upper- and lower-classes).
4) Government - conscious political formation, a move from familial to political rule (usually a monarch).
5) Architecture - structures aren't just built, but planned and used for specific purposes.

True Egyptian civilization was born right before 3100 BC.



In 3100 BC, a king named Menes (or Narmer) unified Upper and Lower Egypt (Upper Egypt being the area closer to the source of the river, Lower Egypt being closer to the Mediterranean Sea). This had never before been accomplished, and signaled the true beginning of Ancient Egypt. He probably achieved this feat through brute force; his makeup pallet survives, on which he is depicted decapitating his enemies.

Menes established his capital at Memphis. He also named himself pharaoh, which essentially declared he was a god. He ensured that his son, Har-Aha, would rule after him by founding the 1st Dynasty.



What most modern people tend to think of as "ancient Egypt" was the Old Kingdom. It encompassed the 3rd through the 6th Dynasties.

The first pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Zoser (or Djoser), who left the first surviving pyramid in Egypt. Succeeding pharaohs evidently liked this structure, and attempted to make grand pyramids of their own. The 4th Dynasty pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) built the largest pyramid in Giza in 2600 BC; it towers 480 feet into the air and its base covers 13 acres. His son, Khafre (Chephren), and grandson, Menke (Mycerinus), also build pyramids in Giza. The great statue of the Sphinx was constructed during this period as well. Contrary to popular belief, none of the pyramids were build using slave labor.

The 5th Dynasty pharaoh Unas created the mysterious "Pyramid texts," which were fiolled with magical incantations for funerals and the afterlife. This book later became known as the "Book of the Dead," and still exists today.

During this period, Egypt was still divided into nomes, and each was governed by nomarchs, the ancient equivalent of a mayor or governor; by the 4th Dynasty, there were 40 nomes. Early on, the pharaoh personally appointed the nomarchs, who were responsible for taxing their people and delivering the taxes (which were in the form of livestock and crops) to the pharaoh.

It was the increasing power of the nomarchs that led to the disintegration of the Old Kingdom. The nomarchs used to be buried with the pharaohs, but closer to 2200, they were building their own elaborate tombs. While the pharaoh had a small bodyguard, the nomarchs commanded their own armies; priests made gifts of land to their friends and family, thus diminishing the pharaoh's resources. The climate may also have changed during this period.



During this period of 150 years, Egypt had no single pharaoh. Dynasties 7 through 10 governed during these years, but they were unstable on the whole. The 7th Dynasty named 70 kings in 70 days! While the 8th was fairly secure, the 9th and 10th ruled at the same time.



The political climate stabilized in 2050 BC, and the 11th Dynasty took power. Egypt was increasingly prosperous, and had a growing awareness of the outside world. Stability was ensured only through warfare; numerous pharaohs were named "Mentu-hotep," which means, "It pleases Mentu (the Egyptian war god)." Although historians aren't certain just who the Egyptians were fighting, it was probably the Nubians, who were rich in gold.

Amen-em-het, a 12th Dynasty pharaoh, sailed up and down the Nile, crushing his enemies and restoring the power of the pharaoh. He was a strong ruler, and ultimately governed for 30 years. But after his rule, the pharaohs again became increasingly weak, as in indicated by their more modest grave goods. A group of people named the Hyksos invaded from the Near East, and they brought a deadly new combination with them: the horse and chariot. Egypt had nothing like it.



The Hyksos took control of Egypt in 1800 BC, claiming the throne for themselves. Dynasties 13 through 17 ruled simultaneously during this period, as the Egyptians struggled to regain power over the Hyksos. In the meantime, the Egyptians secured horses of their own, and watched and waited for the right opportunity.



Ahmose, the first pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, finally expelled the hated Hyksos in 1600 BC. Not content simply to drive out Egypt's enemies, he conquered surrounding areas and expanded Egypt to the second cataract, making it the most powerful nation in the ancient world. His successors would continue to push Egypt's borders, making it larger and wealthier. The pharaohs embarked on a huge building project, constructing new temples and palaces up and down the Nile.

The only pharaoh who risked Egypt's newfound stability was Amen-hotep. He changed his name to Akh-en-aton and attempted to convert Egypt to the world's first monotheism. Despite his vigorous campaign for the one new god Aton, the movement died with him.

The 19th Dynasty pharaohs were powerful visionaries who wanted to reclaim Egypt's past glory. Among them were Seti, Ramses, Thutmose, and Hatshepsut, the first successful woman pharaoh. Tutankhamon, famously known as King Tut, also ruled during this period.

But the prosperity and power could not last. The 20th Dynasty was weaker than its immediate predecessors. Egypt slowly splintered apart as priests, the military, and the pharaoh all struggled for control. By 1100 BC, Egypt again consisted of little more than small scattered kingdoms, each ruled by its own king.

Return Home
Copyright © 1999-2004 SciNet Science Search Engine